Virtue Theory Essay Example for Free

Virtue Theory Essay Aristotle studied and explained a wide range of subjects ranging from science to politics and is widely recognized as one of the greatest philosophers of all time. One of his most important contributions to the study of humanities is his exploration and definition of moral virtue. In his book, The Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle explains different views about the nature of life in order to allow the reader to find what the main function of life is and how to successfully perform that function. For example, Aristotle states in his first book, in article one, â€Å"every art and every investigation, and similarly every action and pursuit is considered to aim at some good. † Hence, Aristotle defines the â€Å"good† as that which all things should aim. However, what separates humans from other â€Å"things† is the fact that humans seek the good in order to achieve eudemonia, or happiness. In order to achieve this result, a human must function well, and would therefore be acting with rational activity. So, if a person performs the function of rational activity well, they have acted with moral reasoning, acting virtuously to achieve eudemonia. In summary, Aristotle believes the good, or virtue, is in a human’s self-interest because of the results it produces. However, I strongly believe that, to classical philosophers, achieving virtue was a broader concept that its modern connotation suggests. It is commonly known that certain theories can be considered obsolete over time if not restated in a modern day context, because as society advances, there is a need for theories and ideas to accommodate and make room for such changes in order to maintain their relevance So, in order to adapt Aristotle’s theory of the good, also known as Aristotle’s virtue theory, into modern day life, different theorists and philosophers became interested in reevaluating the theory and adding to it in order to achieve a successful and newer theory for humans to consider. I want to discuss the most popular theories recreated from Aristotle’s virtue theory to prove that there is, in fact, a need to modernize and restate his original concept, there is not a need to disregard it or substantially add to it. I believe that his theory must simply be presented through a modern outlook to be used as a guideline as to how humans should act instead of a set group of rules that could possible contradict each other. There are many different theories to consider when trying to find the best adaptation of Aristotle’s virtue theory, they range from supplementary views to non-supplementary and non-criterialists. For example, Supplementalists such as James Rachels believe in supplementing Aristotle’s theory of the good with an independent theory of right action. Whereas, non-Supplementalists can be further split into criterialists such as Rosalind Hursthouse, who believes that happiness can be objective, and non-criterialists such as Julia Annas, who believes that virtue theory does not need any criteria of right action because a truly virtuous person would never get into a situation where a criteria of right action would be needed. These theories differ on core principles and methods of adaptation, some even disagree with parts of Aristotle’s theory; however, they all have some form of agreement with respect to Aristotle’s theory of the good and can be used to enhance it for its adaptation into modern day context. After my evaluations of each philosopher’s view points, I have found the most practical and least contradicting theory in Julia Annas’ essay, â€Å"Being Virtuous and Doing the Right Thing. † Her essay delves into not only the original concept of Aristotle’s virtue theory, but also discusses the consequences of abiding by those guidelines in modern day. Her theory allows Aristotle’s theory to remain intact, however she refreshes it to the modern connotation it needed to be more commonly accepted by today’s society. However, when looking at the other popular views, James Rachels’ provides a detailed argument vouching for his supplementalist view point on the theory of the good in his essay â€Å"The Ethics of Virtue. † In his opinion, Aristotle’s theory shows an excellent motivation for moral action and gives us a better perspective of our decisions by enabling a different method of weighing our action. Yet, he also states that through Aristotle’s theory alone, there would be no reason for individuals to think that characteristics are virtues rather than vices. For example, courage could be a vice because there is no basis for asserting that courage is a virtue. Second, he adds â€Å"it is difficult to see how unsupplemented virtue theory could handle cases of moral conflict† (Rachels 2). For example, honesty can conflict with kindness if a certain circumstance presents itself. According to Rachels, a purely virtue-based morality must always be incomplete, since it could not by itself explain why certain character traits are not morally good and therefore, humans could never decipher if they are truly acting virtuously and experiencing eudemonia. In order to make such a distinction between what is and is not morally good, he concludes that a combined approach, supplementing Aristotle’s theory with an independent theory of right action, such as Kantianism or Utilitarianism, will allow for an adequate moral philosophy in modern day. However, there can be problems with supplementation because moral theories, such as Kantianism for example, suffer from the same problem of deciphering the conflict of virtues. Rachels evaluates a list of virtues such as benevolence, civility, fairness, justice and so on, describing them as traits of character that should be fostered in human beings. By doing so, he conveys to the reader the need for an independent theory of right action such as Kantianism to help distinguish whether or not it is a virtue or vice. However, he does not go into detail of the problems such independent theories of right action can run into. Say Rachels wants to supplement the virtue theory with kantianism, and a person posses the virtue of honesty, however, if that person were to be conflicted by Nazis asking where hidden refugees are, that person would have to tell the truth because that is what the â€Å"categorical imperative† deems. Therefore, supplementing the virtue theory proves unnecessary and contradicting when trying to maintain using the virtue theory in modern day. Next, I chose to compare a theory opposing the supplementalist view such as the non-supplementalist view that Rosalind Hursthouse agrees with in her essay â€Å"Virtue Theory and Abortion. † However, she also adds a criterialist view point in that â€Å"an action is right, if and only if, it is what the virtuous agent would do in the circumstance† (Hursthouse 225). In her paper, she primarily uses the example of abortion to demonstrate her criticism of the virtue theory and discuss what is needed to be applied to the theory for it to promote the correct virtuous answer in modern circumstances. She states that â€Å"virtue theory can’t get us anywhere in real moral issues because it’s bound to be all assertion and no argument. (Hursthouse 226),† therefore, she addresses the need for clear, virtuous guidance about what ought and ought not to be done when a person is stuck in a conflicting decision of virtues. In her example of a woman’s decision of whether or not to have an abortion, she emphasizes the necessity of that guidance. However, in the evaluation of Hursthouse’s paper, she states nine separate criticisms of virtue theory, demonstrating what she believes to be an inadequate grasp either of the structure of virtue theory or what would be involved in thinking about a real moral issue in its terms. She clearly makes the point that Aristotle’s theory of the good does not allow for a blatant answer in circumstances in which a person could either only do wrong or face the decision of acting for the good of human kind or for their own self interest. But, what she does not grasp is the simple fact that a virtuous person would never be in such situations to begin with, as Julia Annas later states. Hursthouse’s example of abortion becomes invalid with the realization that a virtuous person would not have irresponsible sex to land herself in a situation of whether or not to have an abortion. She mostly disagrees with Aristotle’s overall concept; therefore, her need to recreate it in a more understandable method is diluted and consumed by her overall goal of asserting the need of a virtuous guidance for those stuck in unvirtuous situations. Julia Annas further addresses the contradictions Hursthouse makes in her essay â€Å"Being Virtuous and Doing the Right Things,† in that she does not follow the criterialist belief that Hursthouse believes is necessary to make the virtuous decision. As stated before, she uses the main contradiction that the circumstances where there is no right answer a virtuous person wouldn’t be in to begin with. Also, she believes that â€Å"we are not blank slates; we already have a firm views about right and wrong ways to act, worthy and unworthy ways to be (Annas 66),† and we become knowledgeable of what is right and wrong through a developmental process, not through some technical method of deciphering right from wrong. She believes that you become good at being virtuous the same way you become good in everything else, for example, in order be good at playing the piano, you must practice. Her statements help relate Aristotle’s virtue theory to those confused about how to apply it in everyday life. She is providing the excuse of instinct and development for the vagueness of his original theory in order to make it more practical and achievable for those wanting to act with virtue. Overall, Annas proves her view deliberately and assertively throughout her paper. It becomes apparent that becoming a virtuous person requires a developmental process much like other activities in life. Also, through defying other theories, such as Hursthouse’s, she shows how uncomplicated making a virtuous decision can be, instead of making such a decision seem unachievable and complicated in modern context. I agree with her statement that it is wrong to â€Å"force our everyday moral thoughts into a system of one-size-fits all kind, virtue ethics tells us to look elsewhere at what happens when we try to become a builder or pianist (Annas 73),† because I believe that is how I came to learn what was morally good, and how I am still learning what is right or wrong in today’s society. She revives Aristotle’s virtue theory for modern day by allowing its original vagueness to remain intact and not trying to rewrite the theory’s initial context, while at the same time describing it as more of a guideline for humans to live by and a way to improve practical judgment in everyday life. In conclusion, Annas’ non-supplementalist, non-criterialist outlook on Aristotle’s virtue theory provokes thought and consideration, but also relates to a reader, because if looked at closely, the virtuous developmental process can be easily recognizable in any reader’s childhood. Also, her analytical methods of revealing the problems in other theories help the reader to comprehend her theory easier. Annas leaves the reader stating â€Å"When it comes to working to find the right thing to do, we cannot shift the work to a theory, because we, unlike theories, are always learning, and so we are always learning and aspiring to do better (Annas 74). † Overall, Annas provides the best adaptation to Aristotle’s theory of the good and provides a positive outlook on the methods of becoming virtuous without constraining the reader to believe that there is exact and deliberate steps a human must make in order to gain eudemonia. Her revision allows Aristotle’s concept to live on into modern day, and thus provides a well-rounded and current guideline to the betterment of today’s society. Works Cited Annas, Julia. Being Virtuous and Doing the Right Thing. Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association (2004): 61-75. Aristotle. The Nicomachean Ethics. 325 B. C. Hursthouse, Rosalind. Virtue Theory and Abortion. Philosophy and Public Affairs 20. 3 (1991): 223-246. Rachel, James. The Ethics of Virtue. 1996. Norman R. Shultz. November 2010 http://www. normanrschultz. org/Courses/Ethics/Rachels_virtueethics. pdf.

Prejudice in To Kill A Mockingbird :: social issues

Prejudice in To Kill A Mockingbird Three students kicked out of a high school for threatening to bring a gun to school. Why would they? Because people were prejudice against them because other students thought they were â€Å"losers†. Moral: You shouldn’t not like a person because they aren’t like you. Prejudice was far much worse in the time period of To Kill A Mockingbird. But, Prejudice is the reason for much social injustice. Three characters named Nathan Radley, Atticus Finch, and Aunt Alexandria show us this in the novel, To Kill A Mockingbird. Back in the time period of To Kill A Mockingbird, blacks were referred to as â€Å"niggers†, and blamed for most things, even when they were innocent. An example of this is when a character named Nathan Radley hears someone in his cabbage patches. He shot his gun in the air and when people asked what happen, he automatically told them it was a â€Å"nigger†. Even though he didn’t see the person. But, he knew the person was white by this quote someone said he said. â€Å"Shot in the air. Scared him though, says if anyone sees a white â€Å"nigger† running around here that’s him† (54). Meaning that he knows the person is white. Another thing is that some people even put animals above blacks, as told in the rest of the quote. â€Å"Got the other barrel waitin’ for the next hears in his patch, be it dog, â€Å"nigger†, or Jem Finch (a character) (54). Now he must have known it was Jem, or why would he have said his name? This shows that Mr. Radley didn’t have any respect for blacks. Not only were blacks referred to as â€Å"niggers† but, anyone associated with them, except for slave masters, were called, â€Å"nigger† lovers. An example of this is that a character named Atticus Finch is defending a black person named Tom Robinson in court. Because he is doing this, most people in town are calling him a â€Å"nigger† lover. Not only are the adults saying it, but their children are saying it too. Since Atticus is defending this man, he has also tried to been jumped many time also. But Atticus makes a very interesting point during the court case. â€Å"The witnesses for the state have presented themselves to you gentlemen, to this court, in the cynical confidence that their testimony would not be doubted. Confident that you gentlemen, would go along with them on one assumption, the evil assumption, that all Negroes lie, that all Negroes are immoral beings, that all Negroes are not to be trusted around our women, an assumption that of one mind of their caliber.

3 Basic Programming Languages

There are three basic types of programming languages. These languages are machine, assembly, and high-level languages. Machine language is just a sequence of zeroes and ones. Different combinations of zeroes and ones mean different things and sends different instruction to the computer. An advantage of this is that this is the only language that a computer can understand directly. However a fallback is that this is not very easy for humans to be able to either read it or write it. It will be hard to get any developers to utilize this language. This is the reason why most will use one of the other two. Assembly language is the oldest form of non-machine language. It is a symbolic representation of machine language. It typically uses a one to one correspondence between the two. Another program called an assembler will translate it into machine language. Since assembly language uses easy to recognize codes, it makes it a lot easier for people to understand. When it comes to the program and how it relates to the computer processing and memory usage, the program will typically be stored in non-volatile memory until it is requested. Upon request it will then be loaded into random access memory (RAM). Once it is loaded into the RAM it then can be accessed by the central processing unit (CPU). It will then execute instructions until terminated. Termination can either be by user or it can be due to software or hardware error. High-level languages will typically contain commonly used English words and phrases, thus removing a lot of the symbols and structure that is required at a lower level programming. There are several advantages to high-level languages vs machine or assembly. Typically if a program is written on one computer it can easily be modified to work on another computer. Also a single instruction written in a high level language will typically translate into several instructions in machine language. Now a disadvantage is that these high level programming languages are typically less powerful and less efficient than assembly languages. They also need to be translated into machine language before their instructions can be understood and carried out. Now there is several different high level programming languages out there. Why are there so many? I think there are so many for a few different reasons. One reason is to take advantage of hardware improvements that have been made over the years. Another is just to make it simpler for programmers. The easier that a language is to learn the better the opportunity is to attract talent. When developing a program, you need to first have a problem to solve. There is a cycle that is referred to as the program development cycle. This cycle has been developed as it is a model that can be repeated across the board to maximize success. The cycle has 7 basic steps. These steps are Define the problem Outline the solution Develop the outline into an algorithm Then test the algorithm Code the algorithm Run the program on the computer Document and maintain the program Now when coming up with the design for your program, you will need to have on hand some people to give input. Having the customer on hand to provide some of that input would be advantageous. Software Engineers, as well as testing engineers will need to be giving input as well as the project manager.

Deforestation And Environment - 1125 Words

Deforestation is a clearing of a wide area of into cleared land that is used for a variety of reasons. The impact on the environment from cutting down, burning and damaging forests is very detrimental and there will be severe consequences for the environment and future generations because of deforestation and approximately 7.3 million hectares of forests are being destroyed per year in the world. (citation) In this essay, I will explore the impact that deforestation on the environment and I will also look at the actions that are being taken to prevent deforestation. There are various reasons why deforestation is occurring despite its negative effects on the environment. Deforestation occurs for many reasons, agriculture, due to the†¦show more content†¦(citation). The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere acts as a blanket which traps the heat in the atmosphere and prevents it from leaving which can results in an increase of temperature. (citation) Another result of deforestation is the loss or decline of animal habitats and the loss of animal diversity. (citation) Forests provide a shelter, a habitat and a food source for many species. Tropical rainforest provides habitats for a great amount of the worlds species and the only cover 7% of the earth’s surface and they are the most in danger by deforestation. (citation) Many animals that live in forests are herbivores and by deforestation it is removing their main food source, and it can be necessary for them to leave their home to search for food, which can result in starvation, death or forcing them to live in small forest fragments. (citation) Due to deforestation dozens of species are becoming extinct every day and by the middle of the century half of all the species could be lost. (citation) Deforestation causes very sever soil erosion, flooding and reduce the quality of water sources. Areas that have been victim to deforestation are very venerable to flooding because there are no longer trees to prevent sediment runoff, also because trees retain more water then farmlands because some water will stay inShow MoreRelatedDeforestation And Environment1402 Words   |  6 Pages Deforestation is an increasing global crisis and is mainly caused by human actions. Forests cover approximately 31% of the area on the planet (Deforestation, n.d.). Deforestation is the destruction of a wide area of forest land into a cleared land that is used for a variety of reasons. The impact on the environment from cutting down, burning and damaging forests is very detrimental and there are severe consequences for the environment and future generations due to deforestation. According to theRead MoreThe Effects Of Deforestation On The Environment845 Words   |  4 Pagesdo to protect the environment? Our planet is shifting, we need to help it change for the better. There are many effects that can change our Globe in a shocking manner but, the good news is each individual can contribute to make a better world for our children. People across the world acquired, use, and dispose enormous multiplicity of products which helps to build our lives easier and more comfortable. Howeve r, the outcome of this can make massive damage to our environment. Working together withRead MoreEffects Of Deforestation On The Environment1389 Words   |  6 PagesDeforestation is one of the many problems this world faces today. Many people are unaware of how harmful deforestation can be towards the environment and the animals that inhabit the area. Many people don’t even know what deforestation is and that it’s actually happening. To sum it all up, deforestation is the process of destroying forests by cutting them down or burning the trees down, destroying hundreds of acres in order to make more land available for other uses thinking that the benefits outweighRead MoreThe Effects Of Deforestation On The Environment953 Words   |  4 PagesAir Pollution Deforestation has been an ongoing activity in both the North and South Island in relatively equal measures. Since New Zealand was inhabited, Maori and European settlers have exploited the forests in New Zealand, reducing them from 82% to 23% of the surface area throughout the country. (Ewersa et al,, 2006). This is a great volume of vegetation which has been removed from the earth’s surface. In return, many harmful impacts are being imposed on the environment. One of these is the increasedRead MoreThe Effects Of Deforestation On The Environment1379 Words   |  6 Pagesyou no choice but to run through the forest. Being separated from family members, all alone in the african desert with no home left. This issue is happening all over the place for many beloved animals yet not much is being done about it at all. Deforestation is a major issue for animals, forests are a huge source of oxygen for the wildlife surrounding them. â€Å"80% of the animals in the world live in or arou nd forests†(National Geographic, Munita) there has been a huge increase for many species goingRead MoreDeforestation Is Bad For The Environment2000 Words   |  8 Pages Even though we need trees for many things, deforestation needs to lessen because it causes things to happen to the atmosphere, animals, and humans. Deforestation is bad for the environment. At least half of the world’s tropical forests has been cleared. There is about 2,000 trees being cut down per minute. An estimate of 140 species of rainforest plants and animals go extinct every day! 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Deforestation is â€Å"the act or result of cutting down or burning all the trees in an area† (Anonymous). Unfortunately, this damages the land. Deforestation has many factors of what causes the loss of trees. There are ag riculture farmers that cut down trees to have more acres to grow more plants or to have more livestockRead MoreThe Effects Of Deforestation On The Environment915 Words   |  4 Pagesongoing environmental issues, which include water shortages, soil erosion and deforestation. The soil erosion has been caused by an excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers. Deforestation has been a detrimental issue because of the large amounts of agricultural and land clearing, and not to mention the over use of wood products for fuel purposes, without replanting new growth. Another leading cause of deforestation is forest fires caused by man, whether it’s intentional or accidental. 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